Societal Systems

How Modern Society Really Works

A simple introduction to systems thinking

1. Why society is hard to understand

We often hear statements like:

• “Politics should control the economy”

• “Science should guide decisions”

• “Markets are broken”

• “Institutions have lost their moral compass”

These statements assume that society works like a machine with a steering wheel. But in practice, society feels fragmented, resistant, and unpredictable.

Niklas Luhmann’s key insight is this:

Modern society has no single center and no master controller.

To understand why, he suggests we look at society as a set of systems, each doing a different job.

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2. Society as communication (not people)

This may sound strange at first, but it is essential.

Luhmann says:

• society is not made of individuals

• society is made of communications

People think, feel, and act — but society exists only when communication happens:

• decisions

• laws

• payments

• news

• scientific claims

Society continues as long as communication continues.

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3. What is a “subsystem”?

A subsystem is a large part of society that:

• focuses on one specific task

• uses one simple rule to decide what matters

• operates independently from other subsystems

Think of subsystems as specialized “languages” society uses to deal with complexity.

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4. Why clear criteria matter

Not everything counts as a subsystem.

To qualify, a subsystem must meet three conditions.

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4.1 A clear job (function)

Each subsystem solves one essential problem for society.

Examples:

• How do we allocate scarce resources? → Economy

• How do we make collective decisions? → Politics

• How do we decide what is true? → Science

• How do we decide what is allowed? → Law

If two systems tried to do the same job, society would collapse into confusion.

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4.2 A simple yes/no rule (binary code)

Each subsystem uses a basic distinction to decide what counts.

Examples:

• Economy → payment / non-payment

• Law → legal / illegal

• Science → true / false

• Politics → power / no power

This rule is not a moral judgment.

It is a filter that reduces complexity so decisions can continue.

Without such a rule, the system would freeze.

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4.3 Independence (autonomy)

Subsystems:

• cannot be controlled directly by others

• follow their own logic

• resist outside interference

For example:

• money cannot decide what is legal

• political pressure cannot determine scientific truth

• moral outrage cannot replace legal procedures

This independence explains why coordination is difficult — but also why society remains stable.

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5. The main subsystems of modern society

Here are the most important subsystems, explained simply:

Subsystem What it does Its basic rule

Economy Manages money and resources pay / not pay

Politics Makes collective decisions power / no power

Law Defines what is allowed legal / illegal

Science Produces reliable knowledge true / false

Education Trains people success / failure

Media Shapes public attention information / non-information

Art Creates meaning and perception art / non-art

Religion Deals with ultimate meaning transcendent / immanent

Health Deals with illness healthy / ill

None of these systems is “more important” than the others.

There is no hierarchy.

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6. How systems work together (without merging)

Subsystems do not blend into one big system.

They remain separate — but they connect through interfaces called structural couplings.

Examples:

• Politics + Law → constitutions

• Economy + Law → contracts

• Science + Education → universities

• Economy + Media → advertising

• Politics + Media → public opinion

These couplings allow cooperation without giving up independence.

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7. Where is morality?

Many people ask:

“Where is ethics or morality in all this?”

Luhmann’s answer is surprising:

• morality is not a subsystem

• it has no clear boundary

• it applies everywhere

Morality uses distinctions like good / bad, but:

• it does not have its own domain

• it often escalates conflicts instead of solving them

Morality influences society — but it does not organize it.

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8. Why this view is useful

This way of thinking explains:

• why reforms often fail

• why organizations are full of conflicts

• why “simple solutions” don’t work

• why society cannot be fully planned or controlled

It also explains why:

• companies struggle to align departments

• governments struggle to control markets

• experts struggle to convince politicians

• public debates become polarized

These are structural problems, not personal failures.

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9. The key idea in one sentence

Modern society is made of autonomous subsystems, each solving a different problem using its own logic, connected but never fully aligned.

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